The Structure and Function of Proteins

Proteins are very important molecules that are essential for all living organisms.  By dry weight, proteins are the largest unit of cells. Proteins are involved in virtually all cell functions and a different type of protein is devoted to each role, with tasks ranging from general cellular support to cell signaling and locomotion. In total, there are seven types of proteins. Proteins Proteins are biomolecules composed of amino acids that participate in nearly all cellular activities.Occurring in the cytoplasm, translation is the process through which proteins are synthesized.The typical protein is constructed from a single set of amino acids. Every protein is specially equipped for its function.Any protein in the human body can be created from permutations of only 20 amino acids.There are seven types of proteins: antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins. Protein Synthesis Proteins are synthesized in the body through a process called translation. Translation occurs in the cytoplasm and involves converting genetic codes into proteins. Genetic codes are assembled during DNA transcription, where DNA is decoded into RNA. Cell structures called ribosomes then help transcribe RNA into polypeptide chains that need to be modified to become functioning proteins. Amino Acids and Polypeptide Chains Amino acids are the building blocks of all proteins, no matter their function. Proteins are typically a chain of 20  amino acids. The human body can use combinations of these same 20 amino acids to make any protein it needs. Most  amino acids  follow a structural template in which an alpha carbon is bonded to the following forms: A hydrogen atom (H)A carboxyl group (-COOH)An amino group (-NH2)A variable group Across the different types of amino acids, the variable group is most responsible for variation as all of them have hydrogen, carboxyl group,  and amino group bonds. Amino acids are joined through dehydration synthesis until they form peptide bonds. When a number of amino acids are linked together by these bonds, a polypeptide chain is formed. One or more polypeptide chains twisted into a 3-D shape forms a protein. Protein Structure The structure of a protein may be globular or fibrous depending on its particular role (every protein is specialized). Globular proteins are generally compact, soluble, and spherical in shape. Fibrous proteins are typically elongated and insoluble. Globular and fibrous proteins may exhibit one or more types of  protein structures.   There are four structural levels of protein: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary. These levels determine the shape and function of a protein and are distinguished from one another by the degree of complexity in a polypeptide chain. The primary level is the most basic and rudimentary while the quaternary level describes sophisticated bonding. A single protein molecule may contain one or more of these protein structure levels and the structure and intricacy of a protein determine its function. Collagen, for example, has a super-coiled helical shape that is long, stringy, strong, and rope-like—collagen is great for providing support. Hemoglobin, on the other hand, is a globular protein that is folded and compact. Its spherical shape is useful for maneuvering through blood vessels. Types of Proteins There is a total of seven different protein types under which all proteins fall. These include antibodies, contractile proteins, enzymes, hormonal proteins, structural proteins, storage proteins, and transport proteins. Antibodies Antibodies are specialized proteins that defend the body against antigens or foreign invaders. Their ability to travel through the bloodstream enables them to be utilized by the immune system to identify and defend against bacteria, viruses, and other foreign intruders in blood. One way antibodies counteract antigens is by immobilizing them so that they can be destroyed by white blood cells. Contractile Proteins Contractile proteins are responsible for muscle  contraction and movement. Examples of these proteins include actin and myosin. Eukaryotes tend to possess copious amounts of actin, which controls muscle contraction as well as cellular movement and division processes. Myosin powers the tasks carried out by actin by supplying it with energy. Enzymes Enzymes are proteins that facilitate and speed up biochemical reactions, which is why they are often referred to as catalysts. Notable enzymes include lactase and pepsin, proteins that are familiar for their roles in digestive medical conditions and specialty diets. Lactose intolerance is caused by a lactase deficiency, an enzyme that breaks down the sugar lactose found in milk. Pepsin is a digestive enzyme that works in the stomach to break down proteins in food—a shortage of this enzyme leads to indigestion. Other examples of digestive enzymes are those present in saliva: salivary amylase, salivary kallikrein, and lingual lipase all perform important biological functions. Salivary amylase is the primary enzyme found in saliva and it breaks down starch into sugar. Hormonal Proteins Hormonal proteins are messenger proteins that help coordinate certain bodily functions. Examples include insulin, oxytocin, and somatotropin. Insulin regulates glucose metabolism by controlling blood-sugar concentrations in the body, oxytocin stimulates contractions during childbirth, and somatotropin is a growth hormone that incites protein production in muscle cells. Structural Proteins Structural proteins are fibrous and stringy, this formation making them ideal for supporting various other proteins such as keratin, collagen, and elastin. Keratins strengthen protective coverings such as skin, hair, quills, feathers, horns, and beaks. Collagen and elastin provide support to connective tissues like tendons and ligaments. Storage Proteins Storage proteins reserve amino acids for the body until ready for use. Examples of storage proteins include ovalbumin, which is found in egg whites, and casein,  a milk-based protein. Ferritin is another protein that stores iron in the transport protein, hemoglobin. Transport Proteins Transport proteins are carrier proteins that move molecules from one place to another in the body. Hemoglobin is one of these and is responsible for transporting oxygen through the blood  via red blood cells. Cytochromes, another type of transport protein, operate in the electron transport chain as electron carrier proteins.

Factors That Affect the Time Value of Money - 1100 Words

Factors that Affect the Time Value of Money Time value of money is the concept that an amount of money in one s possession is worth more than that same amount of money promised in the future (Garrison, 2006). The reason for this is that money today can be invested to earn interest and therefore will be worth more in the future (Brealey, Myers, Marcus, 2004). This paper will explain how annuities affect time value of money (TVM) problems and investment outcomes. In addition, this paper will briefly address the impact of interest rates, present value, future value, opportunity cost and the rule of 72 on the time value of money. Annuities An annuity is an evenly spaced number of payments or money received in the same amount (Cedar†¦show more content†¦People and investment advisors often talk about doubling their money. The rule of 72 says that the time it takes and investment to double is approximately equal to 72 divided by the interest rate expressed as a percentage (Brealey, Myers, Marcus, 2004). For example, take the above example where a person received $12,000 from a rich aunt. How long would it take for that investment of $12,000 at 8% to double? It would take approximately 72/8 or 9 years to double in value. This formula works best with relatively low rates of interest and gives a close approximation of the length of time it take for money to double in value at a fixed interest rate (Brealey, Myers, Marcus, 2004). Conclusion Money is more valuable when it can be invested and earn interest than if that same amount were promised in the future. The time value of money is the basis of finance and investing. The concepts that affect the time value of money are important to understand whether it be a business manager or a household manager. These ideas and concepts are so important in today s climate of disappearing pensions, uncontrolled government spending and the likelihood that social security will not be around in 30 years. Steps should be taken to ensure that the nation s children are taught these concepts in high school and college, so that the next generation will be prepared to manage their own financial well being. References Brealey, R. A., Myers, S. C., Show MoreRelatedThe Internal Influential Factors That Affect College Students Financial Investment Tendency Essay1025 Words   |  5 PagesAnalysis on the internal influential factors that affect college students financial investment tendency 1. Introduction: Investment can be used to refer to any mechanism used for the purpose of generating future income. In an economic sense, an investment is the purchase of non-monetary asset that are not consumed today but are used in the future to create wealth, such as education investment. In finance, an investment is a monetary asset purchased with the idea that the asset will provide incomeRead MoreEco 372 Week 2 Individual Paper727 Words   |  3 PagesWeek 2 Fundamental Macroeconomics October 22, 2012 ECO/372 There are several factors that affect our economy, gross domestic product (GDP), real GDP, nominal GDP, unemployment rate, inflation rate, and interest rates. All of these factors have influences over how we purchase groceries, weather there will be massive layoffs of employees, and decrease in taxes. Gross domestic product is the market value of final goods and services produced within a country in a given period. Which this is commonlyRead MoreAssignment 1683 Words   |  3 Pagesplan for retirement. Creating a budget is an important thing to do because it helps organize your finances and figure out how much money you have to spend on certain things. Planning for retirement is important because you need to make sure you have enough money stored up to support your lifestyle when you retire. Both things are important to help live a flexible, money-wise lifestyle. 2. List two examples of goods you have purchased in the past or may purchase in the future. (Complete sentencesRead MoreThe Fundamental Factors That Affect The Cost Of Money811 Words   |  4 PagesWeekly Discussion The four fundamental factors that affect the supply of and demand for investment capital, and hence interest rates, are productive opportunities, time preferences for consumption, risk, and inflation. Explain how each of these factors affects the cost of money. In your dicussion, explain why a hospital s bond rating is important and describe the different levels. (You can use any bond rating agency for analysis). Productive opportunities is the supply and demand of capital areRead MoreAnalysis Of The Bank s Mobile And Banking Services Platform1491 Words   |  6 Pages On 11 April 2014, Finserve Africa a subsidiary of Equity Bank got its MVNO Licence. This act was intended to reduce the trade expenses and increase revenue stream by granting money transaction plus many other telecommunications services to more than 8 million subscribers. Equity Bank’s mobile and banking services platform launches a year after it had to deal with a myriad of inquiries from industry regulator, Communications Authority of Kenya, Members of the National Assembly and the industry topRead MoreThe Corporate Control Of Your Business1510 Words   |  7 Pageswould change if you pursue the joint venture. If we entered in a joint venture as a company, both our risk and potential return would be reduced. We would reduce our risk because by sharing profits with our newly found partner, we would have less money that is dependent on the exchange rate of the Mexican peso. Additionally, the partnership that we would form would alleviate costs because our partner would provide a classroom to our company. This would decrease our risk because we would not needRead MoreA Research On The Demand For Money1581 Words   |  7 PagesWith the demand for money there are several behaviors in which people hold their money. There are a number of ways for people to invest and increase their wealth. This is a comparison between cash gaining interest in a checking or savings account at a bank or investing in stocks, bonds, and property. There are benefits for each individual for the amount of income they have, how much of that income they expend, and how much is available for savings or investment. Their approach will depend onRead MoreMotives For Investing Foreign Money907 Words   |  4 PagesMary Schiavone Mr. Edward Colton International Finance 04 May 2016 Chapter 3 1. Motives for Investing in Foreign Money Explain why an MNC may invest funds in a financial market outside its own country. An MNC may invest funds in a financial market outside its own country because of the ability to conduct foreign trade with business clients, direct foreign investments and acquisition of foreign real assets. Furthermore, an MNC may invest funds in foreign markets for high interest rates and the expectedRead MoreLease Vs Purchase : Lease Versus Purchase Equipment876 Words   |  4 Pagesrecapitulate the best option for the company. Time value is another aspect management must determine. Therefore, understanding the aspect of lease versus purchase equipment is essential during decision-making when adding equipment to the company’s operation. Factors involved in making a lease Before the company makes its final decision to lease instead of purchase the equipment, reviewing and understanding the following factors are important. Factors in making a lease include, but are not limitedRead MoreEssay about Goodwill Industries1092 Words   |  5 Pagesadopters of trends and they put more value on style rather than the savings itself. Bargain Hunters are the more common clientele for Goodwill stores. These are the people that go to the stores with the mindset of getting more for their money. To this clientele, the focus is on how much discount they could get on an item in comparison to getting them from regular stores. They may care about the trends as well, but their focus is more on the psychological factor of getting a deal (buying something

Extended Argumentative Essay

Question: Should Minimum Wage be Abolished? Answer: In my opinion, minimum wage must not be abolished. The least amount of money must be paid to workers as permitted by the law. Every worker is entitled to a minimum pay by the employer. Minimum wage is a basic amount that is required by an employee to meet his basic requirements. It is recognizable under human rights and every person must have the right to a decent amount of wage that suffices his family. Minimum wages provides a sense of security in people from being exploited. The employee turnover is also reduced. The minimum wage to be paid must be depending on the skills required for doing a particular job. An increase in minimum wage increases the purchasing power of the employee. According to Neumark and Wascher (2008), minimum wage is the lowest amount of money that is allowed by federal and state laws. It is an artificial wage that is imposed by the government to make sure workers are paid that a certain amount. Minimum wage helps in reducing poverty. The income of labors increases giving them a better life than before. People have a tendency to work at places that offers better wage. Minimum wage acts as incentive for people who are unemployed for various reasons. The low wage workers considered positive effects due to minimum wage implementation. They were motivated to look for a better job. It is beneficial for people having single parents. It also boosts up the morale of the employees who feel that they are paid unfair wage (Nguyen, 2013). The concept of minimum wage was adopted by many countries mainly for boosting up morale of working class. An abolition of minimum wage would create low income jobs that would be adverse for the companys economy. The o verall advantages experienced by minimum wage is reduction in poverty levels, decrease in government expenditure, increase in productivity, increase in efficiency and increase in incentives. It is argued that with introduction of minimum wage in UK, there was a counterbalance of effect on monopsony employers. The productivity of workers was increased. It reduced the poverty rate in UK and investors increased the labor productivity. The turnover rate of employees fell down thereby increasing efficiency (Stewart, 2004). According to Schulten (2014), as per European minimum wage policy implementation, there was a demand boost for growth and employment. Large amount of workers benefitted in Germany and Lithuania which improved the living and working conditions. In Japan, too many women live in poverty. An increase in the minimum wage would boost their morale. They have families to look after and an increase in the minimum wage would help in closing the wage gap. The economy would be strengthened as the workers would get a higher earning thereby increasing the purchasing power. Various benefits were seen like female employees were retained and their loyalty towards the compan y increased (KAWAGUCHI and YAMADA, 2007). Minimum wages in Malaysia made higher contributions to Employees Provident Fund thereby increasing retirement advantages to them. The workers could pay off their debts without going to bankruptcy. It decreased government spending by providing aids to workers by their employers. The social spending was cut down and the money was utilized for investment. The production level especially at the rubber companies were boosted due to increase in productivity. Before the implementation of this act, the government was deducting from wages of workers in order to recover from expenses they were making. Minimum wage provided several benefits to them like increase in efficiency and productivity (Leu Fong Yuen, 2013). Contrarily, the arguments that lead to abolishment of minimum wages are unemployment, inflation and increased cost of investment. According to Mărginean and Chenic, (2013), each time with a raise in minimum wage, it is harder for people to get jobs. The employers do not have time to train a person that majorly affects the poor people and youth. Minimum wages was implemented for complying with basic human rights that is not exactly followed. The small businesses take undue advantage of this policy. There are different groups of workforce and teen unemployment is consistent with increase in minimum wage. The cost of workers increases and the therefore the cost of goods or services increases. The value of money comes down and the cycle is repeated. The society is corrupt which does not let the society flourish. Minimum wages create unease in the society and remote areas suffer with it. There is a disparity created in the working cultures. The unskilled labors are paid the same virtually as a skilled labor which creates no difference in the employees. The workers lose a sense of earning and stop putting efforts in the employment ladder. It creates a disadvantage among people as they take the money for granted and do not intend to work any harder. The smaller businesses either go out of business or cut the working hours (Benassi, 2011). According to Foguel, Ramos and Carneiro (2001), minimum wage increases drive in small businesses. The small business firms employ resources at maximum efficiency and labor costs are fully absorbed. The demand is inelastic for many industries and due to heavy capital investment; firms might have to exit the market. With a higher minimum wage, there were adverse effects on American Samoa Location. The cost of power increased but low cash flow, poor management and insufficient advertising led to problems due to minimum wage implementation (Flynn, 2003). In London, it was observed that very few people benefitted from minimum wage. The skilled workers deserved more than the unskilled workers. Minimum wages also leads to cost-push inflation because of which the costs has to be borne by consumers. The household who has a single income earner are relatively poorer. According to Waltman, (2008), The tax burden on people increases as there is increase in earnings. The negative effects are main ly seen on the employment for which the demand of work is contracted and unemployment increases. It is argued that inflation creates a pressure on the business environment by passing high cost to the companies. The short term demand for labor trends accounts to increase in salary. There are high rates of unemployment and higher prices due to fall of contractual works. The labor market got flexible in UK due to changes in rest of the economy. The British competitiveness suffered low wages and foreign investors watched a high salary to avoid economies (Wadsworth, 2010). The poorest dont benefit with minimum wages and a black market is created by people who take undue advantage out of minimum wage. The poorest people have to rely on the benefits and are not affected by minimum wages. Minimum wage abolishment would account to having several advantages as well as disadvantages. With a human right perspective, it is ethical to have a minimum wage in economy. It strengthens and boosts the morale of the employees along with increase in productivity and efficiency. Contrarily, minimum wage turns an economic crisis over a country by negative effects like unemployment and inflation. The minimum wage was introduced with a positive perspective on the economy and well being of people, but it is not effectively applied by the companies. People take undue advantage of minimum wage thereby creating a dilemma on the abolishment of policy. There are several arguments given by economists representing the positive effects and ill effects of minimum wage policy. In my opinion, the minimum wage must not be abolished as it gives a weightage to human rights and flourishes the economy. References Benassi, C. (2015). The Implementation of Minimum Wage: Challenges and Creative Solutions. [online] Available at: https://www.global-labour-university.org/fileadmin/GLU_Working_Papers/GLU_WP_No.12.pdf [Accessed 31 Jul. 2015]. Flynn, N. (2003).Economic report. [Washington, D.C.]: U.S. Dept. of Labor, Employment Standards Administration, Wage and Hour Division. Foguel, M., Ramos, L. and Carneiro, F. (2001). The Impacts Of The Minimum Wage On The Labor Market, Poverty And Fiscal Budget In Brazil. [online] Available at: https://www.ipea.gov.br/agencia/images/stories/PDFs/TDs/td_0839.pdf [Accessed 31 Jul. 2015]. KAWAGUCHI, D. and YAMADA, K. (2007). The impact of the minimum wage on female employment in japan.Contemporary Economic Policy, 25(1), pp.107-118. Leu Fong Yuen, J. (2013). Minimum Wage Policy in Malaysia: Its Impact and the Readiness of Firms. [online] 28, p.21. Available at: https://idosi.org/wasj/wasj28(efmo)13/3.pdf. Mărginean, S. and Chenic, A. (2013). Effects of Raising Minimum Wage: Theory, Evidence and Future Challenges.Procedia Economics and Finance, 6, pp.96-102. Neumark, D. and Wascher, W. (2008).Minimum wages. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Nguyen, C. (2013). The impact of minimum wages on employment of low-wage workers.Econ Transit, 21(3), pp.583-615. Schulten, T. (2014).Contours of a European minimum wage policy. Berlin: Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, Dep. for Central and Eastern Europe. Stewart, M. (2004). The Impact of the Introduction of the U.K. Minimum Wage on the Employment Probabilities of Low-Wage Workers.Journal of the European Economic Association, 2(1), pp.67-97. Wadsworth, J. (2010). Did the National Minimum Wage Affect UK Prices?.Fiscal Studies, 31(1), pp.81-120. Waltman, J. (2008).Minimum wage policy in Great Britain and the United States. New York, NY: Algora Pub.